ubraryW^congress7 

Shelf .^.^,!%.lS^ 



i>i£ESE3sra:Er> 



UNITED STATES OF AMERIOA. 



With the Compliments of Dr. Charles U. Shepard, Jr. 




^^t^ €AIKc^ 





r . 





SOUTH CAPiOLINA PHOSPHATES. 



A LECTURE 



l)EI,IVi:i!I-;i) IIKFOKK 



THE ACRICULITRAL SdCIETY (IF mm CAROLIN.i 



riiaiiostoii, S. C, December 12, iSycj, 



CHARLES U. SHEPARD. Jr.. M. D., 
/I 

I'kokkssor III-' CiiK.MisTKV i.N THi; Medicai. Cm.i.Er.E i)v THE State he SuriH Cakoi.in \ 
Chemist 'th thic IlriARi) n\- Acnici'ltcre oe Sotth Carhi.ina, iSL-c, &c.. 



A MAP OF THK SOCTII (WliOLlXA PIKVPnATIC DKPOSITS. 




CHARLESTON, S. C. 

Till-: NEWS AND COURIER TUIOK PRESSES. 
1880. 



SOUTH CAROLINA I'llOSI'IIATES. 



Ladies and GcJitlcmcn — It is with extreme diffidence that 
I appear before you to deliver an address on Carohna Phos- 
phates. The subject is so famihar to Charlestonians, so 
thoroughly understood in its various branches by many 
whom I have the honor to recognize here, and yet so compre- 
hensive in its scope — embracing both science and practice — 
that I am very naturally at a loss how to approach it, and to 
what aspects to confine myself. 

It is because of this diversity of interest and information 
on the part of many present, and for the sake of our guests 
from the interior who may desire a general review of the en- 
tire subject, that I ask your kind attention wliile I briefly 
consider as many of the more important questions involved 
in our topic as the limited time permits, begging your in- 
dulgence if the matter presented savors too strongly of the 
chemical laboratory. 

THE GEOGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE OF THE CAROLINA THO.S- 

PHATES. 

The coast of South Carolina presents few elevations of 
consequence, it being very nearly flat. In the region where 
the phosphates are found and worked, elevations of more 
than twenty feet are rare ; while generally the level of the 
land is not more than ten feet above high water-mark. The 
coast line is formed by a number of projecting islands and 
peninsulas, separated by shallow, and sometimes broad, arms 
of the sea, from each other and the main land. The latter is 
intersected by innumerable and generally sluggish streams, 
whose water is either salt or brackish. The sources of these 
rivers are found in the middle Counties of the State, or in 



cxtcnsi\'c and frequently wooded swamps, which .occupy a 
considerable part of the belt parallel to, and from ten to fifty 
miles distant from, the coast. The tide rises and falls in 
these streams for many miles from their mouths, their beds 
being exceedingly tortuous and almost level. The generally 
flat character of this section is conducive to the occurrence 
of low and wet " leads," i. e., depressions stretching up from 
the rivers and creeks, or from the marshes bordering the 
same, towards and around the higher tracts, which are gen- 
erally sandy and covered with a growth of pines. These 
leads represent old water-courses and swamps. Their soil is 
deep and rich in organic matter. In places they have been 
drained naturally or artificially, are now dry, and have lost 
much of their old character; but are, nevertheless, easily 
distinguished from the sandy tracts. At a greater or less 
depth from their surface, but ordinarily within a few feet, 
occurs the phosphate rock. It is necessary to note, how- 
ever, that the phosphate formation generally fails to occur 
in those deep rice-field soils which consist of recent alluvial 
deposits. If the rock is found under the higher sand}' land, 
its position is deep. 

The effect of such a configuration of the country upon the 
level of an easily movable deposit, as is that of the phos- 
phatic nodules, can be readily understood. Where the\' 
have been long exposed to the force of running water or 
tides, the rounded masses have been gradually swept into 
the deeper levels, and have thus accumulated in the streams 
and bays, or they have been carried out into the ocean itself, 
whither these waters tend. 

The geologists inform us that material changes have 
taken place in the elevation of this coast above the sea level ; 
and abundant proof can be cited, that the shore lines have 
not always occupied their present position. Thus tidal 
action may have supplemented the force of river currents in 
moving about the nodules, or again, in changing subsequent 
formations, piling them up here or washing them away 
there, and in this manner burying or denuding the phos- 
phatic deposit. .Such superficial changes, if on a very lim- 



itcd scale, as compared with the \'ast modification of the 
earth's crust so often observed in other sections, have been 
sufficient to determine the accessibiHty of particular beds of 
rock. By "accessibility" we mean the possibility of profit- 
able excavations so far as depth is concerned. This, under 
ordinary circumstances, would imply an average depth of 
not exceeding six feet of superincumbent earth for the land 
deposits, and for the marine or river beds not more than 
twenty feet of water, with an exposure of the phosphate 
rock on the bottom, or th:: supposition of only shallow 
sands and mud upon it. 

That must, indeed, be a very level formation, and one 
which has exceptionally escaped subsequent disturbance, 
which, despite its nodular character, fails to exhibit over any 
considerable extent differences of level, greater than a few 
feet. Nevertheless, phosphatic beds are found underlying- 
ten, twenty, or even hundreds of contiguous acres of land, 
over the whole of which mining is carried on at a depth not 
exceeding six feet, or forming the bottoms of broad and 
shallow water-stretches at a tolerably constant depth. But 
they constitute the exceptions; and naturally so, since the 
sinking of \.\\i level a fo:)t or m3re in the case of the land 
deposits, or the accumulation to a like depth of mud or sand 
on the river beds, may put them either partially or wholly 
out of the categor}- of accessible beds. 

THE ACCESSTIU.P: I'HOSPHATIC DEPOSITS. 

Ilence it follows that the outlines of any accessible bed of 
rock, when accurately traced on paper, must present great 
irregularity of contour; so also the attempt to delineate all 
the deposits of our section is a task involving a great ex- 
penditure of labor and time. 

Whether a given bed of phosphate can be profitably 
mined depends upon a number of conditions, natural and 
artificial, as, for instance, in the case of the land deposits on — 

I. The location of the tract as to the point of shipment 
or consumption. 



2. The facilities for removing the rock. 

3. The supply of water, wood and labor. 

4. The quality of the rock. 

5. The extent, depth to and yield of the stratum. 

6. The difficulties to be encountered on excav^ation ; i. e., 
the character of the overlyinc^ earth, drainag'e, trees, &c. 

in river beds on — 

I. The location, both as regards commerce and health. 
• 2. Depth of the water and liability to storms. 

3. Thickness and character of the rock-bed. 

4. The possible occurrence with the rock of troublesome 
concomitants, in the shape of marl, oyster shells, &c. 

5. Quality of rock, &c., &c. 

With a viev\' of better presenting the outlines of the re- 
gions where the Carolina Phosphate occurs at an accessible 
depth, a map has been constructed under my directions by 
Messrs. Simons & Howe, based on Mills' Atlas of this State 
and the Coast Survey's charts. Copies of this chart may be 
found in the State Capitol at Columbia, and in the Museum 
of the College of Charleston. It embraces the results of 
much field work ; and constitutes, so far, the only attempt of 
the kind. 

In calling your attention to this enlarged and simpler 
copy, (one adapted to the purposes of a lecture,) it may not 
be amiss to repeat the caution that the space colored light red 
designates those regions in which phosphate beds occur at 
an accessible depth. By which is to be distinctly under- 
stood, that it is only here and there in the colored portions 
that accessible deposits are found. \'ou will notice that 
some parts of the rivers are traced in deep red. This is to 
signify that in those water-stretches, the rock-beds lie \'ery 
favorably for utilization. To the question, " Why have not 
the several deposits been fully defined?" it may be replied, 
that complete surveys of the various mining properties have 
been executed in but few instances, and that where made, 
the owners are often a\-erse to the publication of the results. 



The territory colored red on the map represents approxi- 
mately two hundred and forty thousand acres, whereas we 
roughly estimate the extent of the accessible deposits at 
about ten thousand acres. 

A cursory examination of the map shows that, the phos- 
phatic deposits extend from the head-waters of the Wando 
River and the Eastern branch of the Cooper, more or less 
l)arallel to the coast line, and at a distance from it of say ten 
to forty miles to the head-waters of Broad River. Although 
this section embraces the territory' of active operations, 
whether of " prospecting " or economical development, it by 
no means contains the entire formation, \\hich certainly ex- 
tends into North Carolina on the North, and probably as far 
South as Florida ; and has been observed in a few instances 
in the interior, sixty miles and more from the coast. 

Beginning at the Northeast, you perceive the Wando River 
deposit, which has produced many thousand tons of small 
nodular rock, dark in color, dense in structure, of a high grade, 
and having mixed with it more fossil bones than have been 
elsewhere found. This nodular layer has proved eminently 
adapted for the use of tongs, ^\'hile its thinness has prevent- 
ed the remunerative employment of dredging machines. 
h\arther inland, occurs the phosphate bed of the Eastern 
branch of the Cooper. This deposit contains a considerable 
cjuantity of rock, richer towards the "T" (the junction of 
the Eastern and Western branches,) and poorer, i. e., mixed 
with more sand, towards its head-waters. The extension of 
this bed towards the Wando River is considerable in surface, 
but thin. Owing to various causes, especially however, to 
the difficulty of access, little has been accomplished in this 
region. 

Beginning on Back River, and stretching to the South 
and West across the Ashley to the Stono River and Ran- 
towle's Creek, is the largest of all the various Carolina de- 
posits. Land beds occur here and there throughout its wide 
extent, many of them of very considerable size and of ex- 
cellent quality, and some of them even now under success- 
ful operation. It is especially in the region between the 



Ashlc)' and Stono Ri\'crs that the deposit occurs over im- 
mense tracts at a remarkabl}' uniform depth — a circumstance 
extremely favorable for mining operations. 

The Stono River bed has been long regarded as a most 
successful field for phosphate workers. Here we have a 
favorable depth of water, ^\'hether for dredging or " tonging," 
a convenient proximity to this City, an excellent nodular 
stratum readily worked, a quality of rock easily ground and 
mixing kindly with acid. All these advantages have com- 
bined to render the locality popular. 

The Edisto deposits occur both in that river and on its 
banks. As a rule the quality is fine, but the depth lacks 
uniformity. Stretching across from the Edisto to the Ashe- 
poo is a tract of country containing several more or less 
isolated, but extremely rich beds. 

At the head of St. Helena Sound, extending up Bull and 
Coosaw Rivers, and underlying Chisolm's Island between 
them, is a body of rock \\hich has contributed a large share 
of the total yield of Carolina Phosphates. In this section, 
especially, we witness the results of excellent management 
and the abundant use of capital, superadded also to favor- 
able natural advantages. Here has been no dearth, of phos- 
phates to be raised, nor can complaint be urged against 
their quality. Nevertheless any one knowing the obstacles 
overcome by the companies operating in this region will ad- 
mit, that their success has been well deser\'ed. 

About and below Beaufort occur a number of remarkably 
heavy beds of phosphate; but unfortunate!}' they are gene- 
rally of an inferior grade, and must await, for utilization, 
better times and the exhaustion of richer deposits. 

The other beds, whether represented on this map or not, 
do not deserve special mention in this enumeration, which is 
only intended to direct your attention to the prominent 
di\'isions of the deposit at large. 

I'HVSK'AL PROPERTIES. 

The most prominent characteristic of the Carolina Phos- 
phate is its nodidar form. r],\en A\here the deposit occurs 



as an apparently smooth and compact floor, or in large flat 
cakes, it is nevertheless composed of irregular nodules, par- 
tially cemented or tightly compacted together. The shape of 
the nodules is egg or kidney-form. The exterior is rough 
and indented, often perforated or even honey-combed by 
round or irregular holes and cavities, or it is smooth and 
compact. The surface is occasionally shiney and coated, as 
it were, with an enamel. The masses are wholly devoid of 
crystalline structure or cleavage, exhibiting occasionally, 
however, an imperfect lamination. Well preserved casts of 
Eocene shells occur throughout the phosphate rock; and 
fossil fish-bones and teeth are not unfrequently found em- 
bedded in them. The nodules vary in size from a fraction 
of an inch to several feet in diameter; in weight from almost 
a ton downwards. The specific gravity of the dry and clear 
rock varies from 2.2 to 2.5, the average being about 2.4. 
The color of the land rock is generally lighter than that 
found under water or marsh-mud ; the former having a yel- 
lowish or grayish-wdiite color, the latter a gray or bluish 
blaqk. The hardness of the average rock varies from 3.5 to 
4. The masses are easily broken and readily ground to a 
fine powder, whose color is light yellow or gray ; and whose 
fineness may allow of its floating in air (the so-called "dust "). 
The structure of the rock is so porous, that when previously 
hot-air dried, it can absorb from five to fifteen per cent, of 
water. Carolina Phosphate gives on friction of its fresh sur- 
faces, a peculiar fetid odor, termed by some naphthous. 
This property is, as a rule, the more decided the denser the 
structure, and the higher the content of organic matter. 

(HKMrCAL ANALYSIS. 

The phosphate rock of our section can hardly be termed 
a mineral species, lacking that essential claim to such con- 
sideration — uniformity of composition. Not only do the 
several beds differ in this respect, but even in the same 
locality, it is easy to distinguish by the eye marked varia- 
tions of color and structure; and when the separate masses 



10 



arc subjected to chemical examination, the difference is still 
more apparent. But viewing the subject from a commercial 
s!:and-point, equally important factors must enter into the 
question. We are obliged to regard in any body of rock its 
cleanness, i. e., how thoroughly it has been washed free from 
the sand, clay or mud in which it occurred ; and its dryness, 
i. e., how much water or moisture has been permitted to re- 
main in its cavities. 

Since we are unable to present a typical composition for 
the South Carolina Rock, we must content ourselves with a 
general statement of the average amount of each of its more 
important constituents, premising of course, that we are 
considering clean and dry samples of what may be regarded 
as fair to excellent qualities. As the result of many hun- 
dred analyses, the following percentages may be given : 

Per ct. Per ct. 

Phosphoric acid ( I ) 25 to 28 

Carbonic acid (2) 2^2 to 5 

Sulphuric acid y> to 2 

Lime 35 to 42 

Magnesia traces to 2 

Alumina do. to 2 

Sesqui-oxide of iron I to 4 

Fluorine i to 2 

Sand and silica 4 to 12 

Organic matter and combined water 2 to 6 

Moisture y> to 4 

(0 Equiwilent to bone phosphate of lime 55 to 61 per 
cent. 

(2) Equivalent to carbonate of lime 5 to 11 per cent. 

In addition to the ingredients mentioned, sodium, chlorine 
and occasionally other elements occur in small quantities. 
Iron-pyrites, rarely found beyond one per cent., is included 
under the estimate of sulphuric acid and sesqui-oxide of 
iron. The organic matter is nitrogenous, containing occa- 
sit)nalK' as high as a quarter per cent, nitrogen. 



• 11 

THICKNESS AM) VIELU OF- THE rHOSPHATIC STRATUM. 

The thickness of the nodular stratum varies from a few 
to ahuost thirty inches — the latter depth being very rarely 
observed. Ordinarily it is from six to fifteen inches, and 
averages about eight. Wliere the deposit exceeds fifteen 
inches in thickness, the depth rarely extends beyond a 
limited area, and is generally due to a local accumula- 
tion, or it is the result of the accidental superposition of 
a few large nodules. The )'ield per acre of clean and dry 
rock varies from three hundred to twelve hundred tons. 
Instances have been noted of a greater yield, but these were 
probably in every case quite limited and exceptional. Under 
ordinary circumstances of occurrence and quality, deposits 
of less than five hundred tons to the acre do not prove re- 
munerative. The average yield of land-beds now worked 
is seven to eight hundred tons to the acre. 

The yield per acre stands in a certain ratio to the thick- 
ness of the stratum ; but not invariably so, as the compact- 
ness of the phosphatic seam plays an important part in 
determining the amount of production. 

The remarks made in explanation of the map indicate 
how uncertain must be the attempt to estimate, even ap- 
proximately, the quantity of phosphate rock in South Caro- 
lina, which, at the average price in the past, might be profit- 
ably raised. 

When an accurate and comprehensive surve)' of the entire 
region has established the extent of the beds, their yield per 
acre, their quality and the cost of excavation and delivery. on 
ship-board or alongside the factory, then will it be possible 
to answer this cjuestion. 

Nevertheless, since others have not hesitated to express 
their individual estimates of this quantity, it may be proper 
for one who has given no little time to explorations in the 
field to record his opinion also. 

As to the result of my field-work, and the calculations 
based thereon, I should say that the total yield of all the 
known phosphatic deposits of South Carolina, of merchant- 



12 



able quality and accessible position, would not exceed five 
million tons. 

TFiE EXCAVATION OF THE LAND-DEPOSITS. 

Pick and shovel suffice for the workins^ of the land-beds. 
The usual procedure is the followiuLj : 

A trench is dug' across or on the side of the tract to be 
mined — the natural drainage of the field being kept in viev.-. 
This is carried below the nodular stratum, and serves as the 
starting point of operations. The superincumbent soil and 
earth is thrown behind the laborers, the rock-bearing seam 
in front on the undisturbed soil, whence it is put in cars or 
carts to be dragged by steam or mules, usually over an iron 
road, to the "washers." The manual labor is performed by 
blacks, under the supervision of whites; and if at times un- 
reliable, is with proper management, quite- satisfactory. The 
blacks are usually employed on "task" work; and under 
ordinary circumstances, produce half a ton of rock to the 
man, per diem. 

When trees or stumps are encountered, they are usually 
undermined ; and then pulled over upon the excavated side 
of the trench. Owing to the level character of the country, 
it frequently occurs that ordinary ditching is inadequate for 
maintaining the trenches in a condition sufficiently dry for 
uninterrupted work ; and consequently steam-pumps have 
been of late introduced to overcome this difficulty. 

The separation of the rock from the accompanying earth, 
and its thorough cleansing from adhering matter, is effected 
by subjecting it to a preliminary washing in an inclined, per- 
forated iron cylinder or trough (a step rarely resorted to), 
and a coarse crushing, either under the blows of a sledge or 
by machinery which regulates the size of the fragments with 
but little pulverization. It is then treated to a thorough 
cleansing in long "washers," constructed of wood or iron, in 
whose axis revolves a shaft armed with projecting steel tee^th, 
which slo\\ly move the nodules up the inclined bed of the 



1:3 



trough, and against a copious (descending) stream of water. 
Or a "cylindrical washer" is employed, consisting of a rotary 
cylinder, to whose sides are attached spiral flanges of iron, 
and through whose axis runs a perforated pipe, distributing 
a powerful stream of water. The flanges keep the rock roll- 
ing, and all the while slowly ascending the inclined tube. 

These arrangements permit the rock, as it becomes free 
from adhering matter, to be brought in contact with fresh 
portions of water. From the upper end of the washer the 
clean rock falls out upon an iron grating, which separates 
the masses of a proper size from the finer stuff (the so-called 
" tailings," frequently containing coarse gravel). The clean 
rock is transported in cars or barrows to the receiving or 
drying sheds. The capacity of a washing machine is fifty 
tons or more per diem of ten hours, according to its size 
and the character of the seam of rock being mined. 

HOW THE RIVER BEDS ARE WORKED. 

The phosphatic deposits situated in the river beds, or on 
the bottoms of the extensive and shallow arms of the sea so 
frequently met with on this coast, are covered by only a fe^\■ 
feet of water, or they may lie at greater depths, and occasion- 
ally under layers of sand and mud. The manner of their ex- 
cavation depends on the depth of water and the nature of 
the deposit. 

HAND PICKING. 

When the depth of water is not too great — some deposits 
running dry at low water — the rock is loosened by crowbar 
and pick, and then thrown into flat-bottomed scows, capable 
of carrying a few tons. There being no superincumbent 
stratum to be remo\'ed, it is sometimes possible for a ean^- 
of three or four laborers to obtain a boat-load in two tides, 
by commencing operations a couple of hours before low 
water, when the water is waist deep, and continuing their 
work for a like period after the turning of the tide. The 



14 



localities favorable for this description of mining are few, 
and are best worked during the summer months; but they 
have yielded an immense quantity of rock at a moderate 
cost. 

The boat-loads are discharged either at the shore or along- 
side large lighters ; and the rock is subsequently crushed and 
washed in the usual manner. The oyster shells and other 
foreign matter, which are occasionally found in these shallow 
beds, are carefully thrown aside.* 

Other deposits lie too deep to allow of their being worked 
after this fashion ; but are within the reach of oyster-tongs, 
which grasp and raise the nodules if they are loose. 

Or, again, it is not unusual to observe the laborers diving 
into water six to ten feet in depth, and bringing in their hands 
to the surface masses of rock of such size as to require the 
strength of two men to place them in the flats. 

It was an exciting spectacle some years since, to witness 
the hundred phosphate-flats moored closely together, near 
the confluence of the North and South Wimbee Creeks, 
teeming with blacks, naked and vociferating, brandishing 
their tongs and poles, or swimming about in the surrounding 
water. The low, marshy banks, dotted with palmetto clumps, 
formed the background to a picture that suggested some of 
Stanley's African experiences. 

DREDGING. 

A very considerable part of the Carolina Phosphate is ex- 
cavated by dredging boats from deeper waters, where it lies 
bare on the bottom, or sometimes covered with several feet 
of sand and mud. These powerful machines work best in 
about twelve feet of water, but have been employed in 
double that depth. Their strength is adequate to tear up 
the thickest and hardest phosphate beds. Under favorable 
circumstances, they can daily raise one hundred tons of rock. 
The "dipper" of the dredging machine empties its load of 
rock, marl, mud and sand on a grating, or into a preliminary 
conical "washer," where it is subjected to a heavy stream of 



15 

water, ^^■hich carries off the t^reater part of the mud and sand, 
thereby enabHng the operatives to detect any pieces of marl, 
sandstone or oyster shells that maybe mixed with the rock. 
These are picked out and cast aside. The partially cleaned 
rock then falls, or is cast by machinery, into a " crusher," 
and thence into the second " washer," where the fragments 
are thoroughly cleansed from remaining impurities. The 
washing apparatus employed in the preparation of the 
river rock consists of either upright and cauldron-shaped, 
or the "shaft" washers previously described. They dis- 
charge the washed rock upon lighters for transportation to 
the dr}'ing shecis, where it is heaped upon and around a 
system of perforated iron pipes, which conduct hot air 
(driven from an oven by a fan) through every part. A few 
days' continuous drying is sufficient to expel all the moisture 
from the originally saturated rock. 

Hot-air-dried cargoes constitute more than half of the 
rock now delivered in South Carolina ; and the fact that the 
local fertilizer factories are supplied with the means of dry- 
ing their purchases of phosphate has alone prevented the 
yet more general adoption of this practice. Where these 
appliances do not exist, resort is had to sun-drying, i.e., ex- 
posure to the hot sun and subsequent storing under sheds — 
a method limited in its applicability and unreliable. 

A simple heaping up, though it be under cover, does not 
suffice to expel all the absorbed water, not even when the 
rock is allowed to remain in pile for a long period. The 
whole mass may contain several percentum of moisture, not- 
withstanding the surface of the heap appears quite dry. 

Finally the rock may be " screened," i. e., rolled over a 
sieve, before its shipment. This step in the preparation— 
unfortunately seldom carried out — separates a considerable 
quantity of finely broken material. 

THE PRICE AND PROFIT. 

The price of South Carolina Phosphate naturally varies 
according to the usual conditions of supply and demand ; 



10 



but it has been also unnecessarily and unfortunately affect- 
ed by a lack of concert on the part of the wealthier corpora- 
tions engaged in mining the rock, and by the exigencies of 
the needy, who have been forced to sell their product as fast 
as raised, in consequence of an inability to hold it for better 
times. 

The price has ranged of late years from five to eight dol- 
lars — averaging about six dollars per ton. The foreign pur- 
chases are based almost wholly on the content of bone 
phosphate of lime, as reckoned from the percentum of phos- 
phoric acid, at a stipulated price per unit, or at a guaranteed 
percentum, usually fifty-five per cent, of bone phosphate. 
The domestic transactions are, on the contrary, very lax, 
being frequently free from all conditions as to cleanliness 
and moisture — a round sum per ton constituting the trade. 
With advancing experience in the business, and a closer at- 
tention to economy, the American buyers must discover that 
it is suicidal to disregard the chemical composition of the 
l^asis of their products, which are sold on the percentage of 
an ingredient derived from it. 

Contrary to expectation, it has been found that few en- 
gage in raising our rock have reaped any profit ; and, it may 
be added, that many have met only with loss and failure. 
There were many lessons to be learned and much costly ex- 
perience to be gained. An entire ignorance of the mining 
operations, the difificulties of a new system of labor (the 
industry having been established during the troublous Re- 
construction period), an inadequate appreciation of the com- 
mercial and chemical requirements, a lack of capital, and 
high prices for freights and materials — all these and yet 
other drawbacks, told against the pioneers. 

Next possibly to the generally unexpected decline in the 
English consumption, the greatest obstacle of late years to a 
thrifty condition of the phosphatic industry has been the 
vacillating legislation on this subject by the General Assem- 
bly of the State. Unfortunate as this has been in its direct 
results, there is no question that a fear of what form such 
adverse action might assume has restricted the investment 
of capital in lands and mining operations. 



17 

As a rule, it has cost less to mine the river beds; but, as 
the more accessible ones approach exhaustion, the advan- 
tage will probably fa\-or the land deposits. Hitherto the 
companies operating" in the rivers have especially enjoyed 
the popular reputation of success ; but, owing to great ex- 
penses and competition at home and abroad, it is to be 
feared that the profits have been small in all but a very few 
instances, whether on land or water. If we were able to 
ascertain the total amount of money that has been invested 
in lands, machinery and working capital during the prosecu- 
tion of mining operations, and then that of the actual divi- 
dends and profits earned, it is to be apprehended that the 
exhibit would be far from encouraging. 

A year ago, when the annual production exceeded two hun- 
dred thousand tons, and the demand was excellent* it seemed 
possible for both the land and river mining companies to 
clear a reasonable, not to say handsome, profit. Unhappil)', 
as all know, this state of affairs was of short duration. 

No one, however, will question the advantages that ha\'e 
accrued to the State from the large payments in royalt}', 
nor those enjoyed by thousands who have found in this in- 
dustry a profitable employment or support. The total 
royalty of one dollar per ton, received by the State on the 
production from the river beds (as kindly communicated by 
the Comptroller-General), amounted on the ist of Septem- 
ber, 1879, to $546,965.75. 

The total production to date of all the Carolina deposits 
may be safely estimated at almost one million five hundred 
thousand tons, which, valued at six dollars per ton, would 
represent $9,000,000 received and gcneralh' retained, in this 
State. 

There are rich and poor in phosphate mining as in other 
things. Some of the companies have expended from one- 
half to a million of dollars in the purchase of lands and the 
equipment of their "plants." Their works, when in full 
operation, give employment to several hundred hands each ; 
and are models of order and adaptation. There are also not 
a few operating on the river beds, under the new license law. 



IS 

who bring little else to the work than their own energy, and, 
perhaps, the outfit of a small phosphate craft. All have 
been equalK' rich in expectations. 

Among the ach-antages possessed b\' the South Carolina 
Phosphates are : 

1. That most of the phosphate beds have convenient 
points of shipment for whole cargoes, or the rock may be for- 
warded from Charleston, Port Royal, or Savannah, at a lower 
rate, in ballast under cotton. Some of these ports have suffi- 
cient water for ships of two thousand tons burden, while the 
rest are generally situated on streams navigable for schooners 
and other light draft vessels. A few miners use the railroads 
crossing the phosphate belt for the transportation of their 
product to 'deep water. 

2. The proximity of the beds to the field of greatest con- 
sumption on this continent, viz: The Southeastern States, 
which annually consume over two hundred thousand tons 
of commercial fertilizers. As competition reduces the profit 
on the manufactured articles, it will be found necessary to 
manipulate the crude rock here, thus avoiding the expense 
oi two freights on the phosphate. 

3. Commercial phosphatic manures consist very general- 
ly of superphosphates (i.e., ground phosphates treated with 
sulphuric acid), containing from ten to thirteen per cent, 
soluble phosphoric acid, to which may be added ammonia- 
cal matter and potash salts. 

P^or the manufacture of such articles the South Carolina 
Phosphate Rock excels, and for the following reasons: It is 
cheap. It is remarkably free from gangue rock and other 
impurities. It is readily ground to that impalpable fineness 
\\hich is indispensable for its complete decomposition b)' 
sulphuric acid. It contains little flouride of calcium, and 
consequently yields on its treatment with acid, less noxious 
fumes than is the case with apatitic phosphates. The super- 
phosphate made from it dries readily, and is light in color 
and weight. It may be easily made to contain the amount 
of soluble phosphoric acid required in commerce, and this in- 



19 

^a'cdient is subject to less reversion than takes place in most 
of its competitors. 

4. Its physical structure and chemical composition favor 
its resolution (without the intervention of sulphuric acid) by 
the natural solvents of the soil ; and consequently the assimi- 
lation of its constituents by plants takes place more rapidly 
and effectually than occurs with most other mineral phos- 
phates. 

THE POSITION OF THE ACCESSIBLE BEDS, AND THEIR RE- 
LATION TO THE UNDERLYING STRATA. 

The ordinary occurrence of the superficial beds of phos- 
phate — those now v.orked — may be thus stated : 

A — Land Deposits. 

I. Soil and Subsoil — A few inches to a foot in depth. 

II. A Light-colored Siliceous Clay, iron stained in places, 
and containini,^ much fine transparent sand and minute scales 
of silvery mica, with little calcareous matter — One foot or 
more in thickness. 

III. (Wanting in the more superficial beds) — A Blue 
Argillaceous (clayey) JLrrl, probably altered marsh mud. It 
does not adhere to the tongue or give an argillaceous odor. 
Fragments of recent shells occur in this deposit — Its depth 
is about two feet. 

IV^ A Thin Layer of Coarse Sand — One to three inches 
in depth. 

V. Tlie Phosphate Nodules, in either a loose siliceous or a 
tenaceous, bluish or rich buff colored argillaceous marl, fre- 
quently accompanied with abundant fossil bones and teeth. 
The upper nodules are often harder, the lower softer, and at 
some land localities exhibit a gradual transition, by loss of 
cohesion and decrease of phosphatic content, into 

VI. A Marl, highly phosphatic towards the rock-bed, 



20 



and occasionally containing twenty to thirty per centum of 
phosphates, but at the depth of a few inches containing" 
only ten to twenty per centum of those constituents. 

VII. Argillaceous or Arenaceous [sandy] Marls, contain- 
ing seven to ten percentum of phosphates. 

V>~River Deposils. 

Beneath the river deposits occur either 

I. A Gray Marl — Sometimes in nodules resembling phos- 
phate, with five per centum of phosphates, underlaid by 

II. A white hard marl, enclosing phosphatic grains, and 
containing three to five per centum of phosphates ( Wando 
River) ; or 

I. A Green Sand — With some clay, and rich in black 
phosphatic grains, occurring with and beneath the phosphatic 
rock containing fifteen per centum of phosphates. 

II. Soft and Hard Marls — Several feet in thickness, and 
containing ten to fifteen per centum of phosphates { Stono 
River) ; or 

I. Hard Marls — Poor in phosphates, (one-half to one per 
centum ) unless their tops be coated with phosphate rock. 
( Coosaw River.) 

DEPTH OF OCCURRENCE OF THE UPPER DEPOSFF OF PHOS- 
PHATES. 

The depthi,at which the upper nodular phosphatic stratum 
(Kcurs are variable. In some places the bed crops out in 
the top soil ; in others it is found at ten to twenty feet, and 
even greater distances (under this Cit\' at sixty to seventy 
feet) from the surface. Whether the nodules underlie the 
whole of the region between the various known beds can be 
determined only by an extensive and costly system of 
borings, as \'et not attenij^ted, and probably never will be, 



♦ 21 

unless at the expense of the State c^overnment. Mitherto 
whatever information has been gained in regard to this re- 
markable deposit, so full of interest to the people of this 
State, and to Science, is due to private enterprise. Thus 
far not a single investigation towards the solution of the 
scientific questions involved, lias been instituted at the ex- 
pense of the State. 

It may be added that it seems probable, even where in 
this region the customary prospecting has failed to reveal 
the existence of the phosphate deposit at easily obtainable 
depths, deeper explorations might lead to their discovery, 
excepting, however, those sections where moving water has 
removed the nodules. 

UNEQUAL CONTENT OF i'HOSlTIORIC ACIU 1\ DIEEERENT 
PARTS OE THE SAME NODULE OR AL\SS. 

A marked difference in the content of phosphoric acid 
between the upper and lower surfaces of the same flat mass, 
or between the rind and core of the same phosphate rock, 
is frequently to be observed. There occur in company with 
the ordinary commercial phosphate, especially in the Coosaw 
and Bull Rivers, large masses of marl, several inches to a 
foot in thickness, presenting the same fossils as the phos- 
phate rock and the underlying marl, whose top is covered 
with a coating of phosphate, and whose inferior side is 
chemically almost identical with the ordinary marl. Be- 
tween the physical and chemical characteristics of the two 
sides there is a gradual transition. 

At some localities — as in the Ashepoo region — where flat 
cakes of rock lie so compactly together as to form an almost 
unbroken floor, the dissimilarity between the top and bot- 
tom of the bed is very striking. The former, which is the 
richer of the two in phosphoric acid, is smooth and "enam- 
eled ; " the latter granular, jagged and honey-combed with 
cavities that penetrate almost to the top of the deposit. 

Again, certain nodules, of not unfrecpient occurrence, ex- 
hibit a noticeable difference a^^ regards the content of phos- 



22 



phoric iicid in the superficial layers and the core. Actual 
investigation has demonstrated that the shiney enamel-like 
rind contains several per centum more of phosphates than 
the centre. This difference is more marked in those no- 
dules who.-.j internal portion is less compact than the ex- 
ternal. In these cases there is far more carbonate of lime 
within, occasionally approximating it to the marl itself. 

T[IK CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE STRATA UNDERLVINC 
THE PHOSPHATIC LAYERS PREVIOUSLY DESCRIBED. 

Several opportunities have been afforded during the past 
ten years for securing specimens of the deeper lying forma- 
tions, in consequence of the boring of a number of Artesian 
Wells in this City and neighborhood. 

The samples thus collected have been carefully examined 
.md analyzed; the niost important contribution to our 
knowledge being the discovery of the existence of several 
deeper layers of phosphate rock occurring to the depth of 
three hundred feet from the surface, and in the form of 
isolated pebbles to a much greater distance. These lower 
deposits are probably not thicker than a few inches, and con- 
s_^c|uently the}^ lack all but scientific interest. 

THE SOURCE OF THE PHOSPHORIC ACID CONTAINED IN 
THE UPPER P.ED OF CAROLINA PHOSPHATES. 

It is clearly bc\'ond the scope of this lecture to enter into 
a discussion of the many interesting theories that have been 
advanced by different scientific men concerning the geology 
of the South Carolina nodular phosphatic deposit. Various 
suppositions have been propounded in regard to its origin. 

At this moment, with the additional light shed by recent 
observations, I am inclined to accept the opinion advanced 
by that enthusiastic student. Professor Francis S. Holmes; for 
a fuller account of whose views I must refer you to his pamph- 
let published in 1870. (The Phosphate Rocks of South 
Carolina; their History and Development, PTancis S. 
Holmes, Holmes' Book-PIouse, Charleston. 1870.) 



23 

Professor Plolmcs regarded the nodular phosphates as 
detached masses of Eocene marl, torn off b}' the action of 
\\'aves from the great mass of this formation, and swept in- 
land over the sand bars, which (as also the great marl bed) 
were covered by the waters of the ocean, to be deposited in 
those shallow ba)'s and salt water lakes that are now the 
phosphatic region of South Carolina. I will not dwell on 
his fundamental argument, viz : that the interna! structure 
of the marl and the phosphate is identical, containing (as 
they do) the same casts of fossil shells and the same remains 
of marine vertebrates embedded in them, but proceed to the 
consideration of his views concerning the phosphatization of 
these masses. 

Professor Holmes advanced the theory that, on the eleva- 
tion of the shore of this continent, these salt water bays or 
lakes became lagoons frequented by land animals, whose 
f.neces and remains, augmented by those of others transported 
b}' various streams into the same receptacle, were the cause 
of the conversion of the carbonate of lime, constituting the 
marl masses, into the highly phosphatic character of the no- 
dular rock which we mine. 

We find occurring with the phosphatic stratum, but never 
imbedded in tlie nodules, the teeth and bones of a number of 
species of land animals, some of them now extinct, viz : 
those of the mastodon, elephant, horse, deer, megatherium, 
rhinoceros, tapir and others. Frequent are the osseous re- 
mains and coprolites of many extinct marine animals, some 
of them of great size, viz: those of several species of sauri- 
ans, sharks and whales, whose deposition must date back to 
the period when comparatively deep salt water covered this 
region. 

If we regard the beds of phosphate from a chemical stand- 
point, we may find additional proof in support of these opin- 
ions. 

The decomposition of a mass of animal remains superim- 
posed upon the marl-nodules, would cause the production of 
carbonic acid and the solution of the phosphates originally 
contained in the animal matter, in water percolating through 



24 



the layer. As this sokition penetrated into the carbonate 
of lime of the marl masses below, the phosphoric acid would 
be detained there, and the carbonic acid, whether of the 
original solution or of the marl, would be carried ofT. Under 
such circumstances we should expect to find the greatest 
phosphatization at the point of contact ; and such is the 
case, it having been remarked that the top of the stratum — 
especially when it formed a floor and has been but slightly 
disturbed — is the richest in phosphoric acid, and where the 
marl occurred in nodular masses the rind is richer than the 
core. 

Again, this theory explains the gradual transition from 
hard phosphate rock, through soft rock to the feebly phos- 
phatized marl, which is itself much richer in phosphates 
than the parent Eocene marl occurring at greater depths 
below. This phosphatization was accompanied by a hard- 
ening of the previously softer marl masses, which became 
denser in proportion to the completeness of the change ; it 
cemented together contiguous masses, giving rise to the 
more or less continuous phosphatic floor before alluded to, 
and penetrating below produced curious projections on the 
rock-bed, by the chemical conversion of accumulations of 
marl which had filled up irregularities in the top of the 
underlying stratum. 

THE DEEPER PHOSPHATIC DEPOSITS. 

The occurrence of other nodular phosphatic laN'ers at 
greater depths has been mentioned, and we are forced to 
seek some other explanation for their production. 

In the case of these deeper strata we have unquestionabh' 
to do with a concentration, by chemical agencies, of the 
phosphates contained in the surrounding marls, into more 
or less isolated masses or layers. Similar concretionar}' 
processes have been observed in the production of flint peb- 
bles and nodules in the chalk of England. In fact, phos- 
phoric acid exhibits a special proneness to concentrate 
whate\'er it is si)arseh' distributed through a formation per- 



25 



mittini^ such interpcnctration. The \-chiclc most favorable 
for the exercise of this tendency is carbonic acid, cither sim- 
ply dissolved in water or contained in an aqueous solution 
of alkaline and alkaline earthy salts. 

Repeated analyses, executed in my laboratory, of the 
waters of the deep strata beneath our feet, have demonstra- 
ted the presence of this medium, as also of phosphoric acid 
in the waters of certain levels. 

These facts A\ou]d appear as sufficient li^rounds for the 
opinion that : 

The deeper strata of pliospliatie masses are the result of a 
eojicentratio)i by carbonic acid of the pJiospIiates sparsely dis- 
tributed throug-h the overlyiny; marls. 

In this connection I will mention an observation made at 
Sineath's Station in the case of the deeply occurrini^ phos- 
phatic nodules and pebbles, viz : that they lie beneath 
layers of argillaceous marl. The inference is that these last 
A\ere muddy bottoms, receiving (phosphatic) animal matter 
from shore and sea, and that they subsequently underwent 
a lixivation into the underlying stratum, similar to that be- 
fore described as occurring in the great upper deposit. -which 
converted the Eocene nodules into phosphate rock. 

Where the phosphatic masses are a fine sand or pebbles, 
presenting every appearance of having been subjected to 
rolling and attrition, there seems no other explanation than 
that they were once h'ing at the bottom or sloping shore ot 
the ocean, and were afterwards covered b}' subsequent forma- 
tions. 

THE HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY. 

Neither is it my intention to dwell on the history of the 
discovery and utilization of the South Carolina phosphatic 
deposits, more than to direct your attention anew to the 
fact, already noted in the literature on the subject, that 
their \alue was surmised e\'en before the war, and that tlieir 
4 



20 

manipuhition was j)rcventcd before and immediately after 
that .stru<T<j^le, onl)- by fortuitous circumstances. 

Interestin<T as the topic is, its due treatment would neces- 
sarih' tax your patients, and any cursory review of the 
claims adxanced in favor of the several gentlemen Avho are 
credited with having first discovered the existence and value 
of these beds would be eminently improper on such an oc- 
casion. The subject has frequently appeared on the pages 
of various papers and pamphlets, and to them I would direct 
}'ou for }'our instruction and judgment. 

TIIK PRESENT J)ErRESSIOX. 

But, on the other hand, it seems Cjuite appropriate to call 
)'Our attention to the present depressed condition of the 
phosphatic industry ; and to consider the possibility of its 
recovery, as also what measures would appear to conduce to 
that desired end. 

The cause of the general depression in South Carolina 
Phosphates was unquestionably over-production. The im- 
mediate occasion was a decline in the English consumption, 
the result of agricultural disasters in that country. It is 
well known that the condition of the English farmer has 
been rapidh' passing from bad to worse during the past few 
years. To hard times, high rents, increased taxation, the 
extensi\e importation of American agricultural products 
and their sale at a price which defied competition, were ad- 
ded unpropitious seasons and scanty crops. The farmers 
became dispirited, and shrank from outlays for commercial 
fertilizers that previously had been regarded as essential ; 
and the dealers were disinclined an\' more to put out their 
wares on the customary long credit. 

This condition had been gradually developing for some 
time; but it was a most disastrous har\-est that created the 
panic and brought matters to a crisis. Manufacturers of 
fertilizers became alarmed ; they seriously questioned the 
ability of the farmers to pa)- for what the\- had received, and 
doubted the safet)- of maintaining their production. They 



\\crc disposed to ask the cessation or reduction of existing;' 
contracts for crude phosphates, much less were they wilHng 
to assume new ones. A stagnation in the phosphate market 
followed of course, with a tumble of prices. Phosphates less 
popular than the Carolina went begging in vain for a pur- 
chaser at any price, while our own severely felt the shock. 
A few high grade articles would appear to have suffered only 
a reduction of price, not of quantity. Foreign shipments 
fell off, and phosphate rock was thrown in large quantities 
on the American market at its worst season. Some richer 
or more favorably situated companies have continued their 
mining operations, although generally on a reduced scale. 
But the production, on the whole, was suddenly and very 
materially checked ; and it has been found desirable to en- 
tirely stop several works. 

The prices now obtained cannot cover the average cost of 
production and the interest on money invested ; and it 
would be simply a question of capital, how long many of 
the miners could stand the trial. The objection may be 
urged that parties are to-day willing to raise rock from the 
river beds of the State for sale at the current rates. This 
fact cannot be denied ; but, while they are attempting an ex- 
periment which is likely to prove calamitous to themselves, 
they are inflicting an incalculable injur}- on the entire phos- 
phatic industry of the State, by maintaining the existing 
depressed price, and at the same time, in most instances, by 
lowering the reputation of our rock, in consecjuence of their 
inability to properly prepare it. 

Let us not delude ourselves \\ith the belief that Carolina 
Phosphates encounter no serious competition in the markets 
t)f Great Britain, or even of our own country. Under the 
favorable conditions obtaining but a few months ago, there 
seemed to be room for all similar materials. But now, when 
the demand has shrunk to very limited dimensions, ^\■e must 
necessarily feel the pressure of high grade articles ^^'hich 
naturally take precedence over ours, and to the extent of 
their production, occupy the market. Never was the im- 
portance so manifest of not only maintaining A\'hatever re- 



28 



putation for j^radc we may have earned, but of increasing it 
by the utmost attention to the quahty and preparation of 
our rock. In the early days of this industry, incalculable 
damage was done by the shipment of dirty cargoes, from 
which it has cost years of effort to recox-er. It is true that 
outside opinions as to the success (or the lack of it) of 
business ventures are apt to be fallacious ; but the statement 
may be risked, that in no case has prosperity favored any 
company or individual engaged in large sales of improperly 
prepared rock. 

An unusualh' abundant harvest and the sensible retreat of 
hard-times in the country at large, promise an increased 
home demand for phosphates. Their consumption is spread- 
ing rapidly not only throughout the Southern, but also the 
Eastern and Central States, wherever long continued tillage 
has told on the natural fertility of the soil. In a few years 
we may expect a domestic demand for commercial manures 
not inferior to that \\hich heretofore obtained in Great 
Britain. 

(jreater attention to agricultural interests, the realization 
of promised reforms in rent, and the wider appreciation of 
the necessity of the continued phosphatic enrichment of the 
soil must, perhaps slowh', but nevertheless surel)', restore 
the English market to its former state. Meanwhile other 
competitors are either suffering in common with ourselves, 
or, in the case of the few preferred ones, are gradually ex- 
hausting their supply. 

Let us avoid too large an accumulation of mined phos- 
phate, which puts us at the mercy of the buyer, by limiting the 
supply to the demand. Let us devote greater attention to 
equality and preparation, thereby retaining our old customers 
and gaining new ones ; and finally, let us live in the hope 
that an enlightened policy on the part of the State govern- 
ment may seek to support a struggling industry, rather than, 
by the imposition of new burdens, repel the^introduction 
of fresh capital and crush out what vitalit)- remains. 

It is indeed a mine of wealth — this great phosphatic de- 
posit ; not only to every farmer who makes judicious w^e qi 



29 



• its products, but also to the State (if properly s^uarded); 
and to those wlio will apply to its development the experi- 
ence of other mining industries. It is, however, no treasure 
heap, into which all may plunge with the certainty of gain. 
It is, and will continue to be, the field for the prudent capi- 
talist, and the industrious laborer. Others had better not 
tempt the fate that surely follows a misconception of the 
difficulty of dealing with so close a margin of profit. 

In conclusion, I thank you for the courteous attention 
with which you have listened to my remarks ; and will only 
express the hope that the de\xdopment of the phosphate 
beds may contribute alike to Science and the continued 
prosperity of the State. 



NOTES TO THE MAP. 



The red-lined spaces designate the regions in whicli ]>liospliatc Ijeds occur 
at an accessible depth. 

'\\\e. full-red shading in the river courses indicates the jiosition of favoral)ly 
situated river deposits. 



(irateful acknowledgment is herewith made for valuable assistance by 
Mr. George JVl. Wells and the late Mr. Wm. Hurae Simons, during the con- 
struction of this map. 




\y I 11 



T 



